6. Physical Infrastructure Domain

The reviews identified three broad areas of research relating to the physical infrastructure domain. The first deals with the phenomenon of ethnic enclaves and neighbourhoods, and the general issues of residential concentrations in urban areas. The second deals with housing, housing stock, and real estate. The third is the possible impact of immigration on the pattern of use of public space.

a. residential concentrations

There are various explanations for the existence of residential enclaves. As described earlier, these include a desire to sustain or nourish the group, as a defense from attack, or as a result of discrimination. The notion of the ethnic enclave has evolved. The historic conception was of the existence of low income immigrant/ethnic enclaves, often useful as settlement areas for new immigrant waves, though also areas of high crime and substandard housing.

There are descriptive studies of indices of segregation in various Canadian cities, and these display a wide range of variability over groups and cities. It is suggested that the problems of immigrant visible minority concentration in Canadian cities do not (yet) match those of American cities. In fact the indices of residential dissimilarity for blacks in the US are far higher than those for visible minorities in Canada.

Indeed, the French language review makes the claim that there is an absence of residential segregation in Montreal; i.e. no areas where an immigrant minority group forms a majority. While this may be true there are clearly known areas in the city that do contain above average areas of some minority groups. There is also clear evidence of discrimination by whites against visible minority renters. Yet some policies developed in Quebec in the housing area in general make no mention of ethnicity which is not seen as a crucial element of housing policy.

The French language review concludes in general that the domain of urban-ethnic studies is under-researched. Studies focus mainly on descriptions of particular groups. Similarly the studies of housing market discrimination are considered few and superficial. In general Quebec studies like many others consider ethnic concentrations to be negative indicators of integration. Much of the Quebec writing in the area has focused on the impact of immigration on Montreal (e.g. sustaining Montreal's population in the face of middle class Quebecois flight to the suburbs, or the impact on Montreal's francophone character) rather than on the needs of immigrants.

But there is now the emergence of middle class suburban areas of ethnic concentration, for immigrants as well as later generations. One thinks of suburban concentrations of Jews or Chinese immigrants. Historically, ethnic neighbourhoods provide a critical mass which may sustain ethnic sub-economies and ethnic services and organizations, e.g. churches, schools, etc.

How important are immigrant /ethnic neighbourhoods or enclaves? Apparently textbooks on ethnic and race relations make only passing references to the topic. But contrary to some views, there is no evidence that ethnic enclaves, or residential concentrations per se, are always a barrier to social mobility.

Ethnic enclaves themselves are not static. As in the case of Vancouver Chinatowns, their role and function may change. They may cease to become areas of major residence, or even major commercial development, and become tourist areas or centres of community agencies, foodstuffs and ethno-cultural artifacts. This linkage of immigration/ethnicity and tourism was not reviewed, perhaps because studies were not found.

In any event, the degree of ethnic residential concentration, notably for minority groups, is far less than in the United States, as measured by indices of residential dissimilarity. Moreover, Canadian cities in general do not have immigrants/visible minorities concentrated in low income inner city areas, as is the case for blacks and Hispanics in many cities in the United States.

b. housing

It is not clear to what extent immigrants actually change the design and construction of housing units, from the building of so-called "monster homes", cutting down trees, or planting gardens, modifying external decor or internal decor, etc. There is also apparently little research on the housing quality available for immigrants, or crowding indices, which can be indirect measures of discrimination as well as reflections of cultural preferences. The reviews also did not discuss any research on the behaviours of real estate agents. This group may also operate within informal ethnic networks. Subtle processes of discrimination have been observed by realtors in American cities; it is not known whether similar processes can be found in Canada.

Immigrants in general have above average levels of homeownership. But some evidence is cited which suggests that some more recent non-white immigrant groups may have lower rates.

c. public space

It is unclear how immigrants differ from the Canadian born in their use of public space. Public interactions in public spaces, from parks to malls to sidewalks, that involve culturally dissimilar groups may lead to conflict, that can cause or reflect racial and cultural tensions. All this needs to be researched. Even when such encounters prove problematic, it is not clear if or how a policy response should be fashioned, given fundamental freedoms.

The reviews did not analyze how immigration impacts on housing markets and real estate prices -- if at all. While studies by the Laurier Institute have suggested a minimal impact, more work needs to be done. To the extent that immigrants arrive in large numbers to cities, increasing the population, there will be a short term increase in the demand for housing and/or real estate prices. In general immigration contributes to population growth in cities. And there is a possibility that population growth may tax the carrying capacity and physical infrastructure of urban areas. But this aspect of urbanization has not been researched as an immigration issue. Nor has the impact of immigration on urban development, or on entertainment patterns in the city.

The impact on cities may vary if population growth occurs from international migration, internal migration, or simply natural increase. In general international immigration has accounted for only a fraction of the population growth in cities like Vancouver, but immigrants may be perceived by others as the dominant cause. The impact of immigration on the age profile of a city is important. For example increasing proportions of children might militate for more park and playground development.